Battle of Lepanto (1571)

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The naval Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a galley fleet of
the Holy League, a sometimes-flimsy coalition of the Papacy (under Pope Pius V),
Spain, Venice, Genoa, Savoy, the Knights of Malta and others, defeated a force
of Ottoman galleys. The 5-hour battle was fought at the northern edge of the
Gulf of Patras, off western Greece, where the Ottoman forces sailing westwards
from their naval station in Lepanto met the Holy League forces, which had come
from Messina, in the morning of Sunday 7 October[1]. It was the final major
naval battle in world history solely between rowing vessels.

Forces

(See order of battle for detailed list of each ship or commander involved in the
battle)

The Holy League's fleet consisted of 206 galleys and 6 galleasses, and was
ably-commanded by Don John (or Don Juan) of Austria, the illegitimate son of
Emperor Charles V. Vessels had been contributed by the various Christian
factions who were supporting the Habsburgs: 105 galleys and 6 galleasses from
Venice, 80 galleys from Spain, 12 from the Papal States, which were hired Tuscan
vessels, 3 from Genoa, 3 from Malta, 3 from Savoy and several privately-owned
galleys, most or all of whom viewed the Turkish navy as their maritime naval
trade rival for the profitable Mediterranean Sea trade routes. The various
Christian squadrons met Veniero's main squadron in July and August 1571 at
Messina, Sicily, waiting for Don John, who arrived on 23 August. The galleasses
were converted merchant galleys from Venice. They joined the gathering fleet on
7 July 1571.

This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 12,920 sailors and 43,000
rowers. In addition, it carried almost 28,000 fighting troops: 10,000 Spanish
regular infantry of excellent quality, 7,000 German and 6,000 Italian mercenary
contingents from the various Habsburg dominions, under Spanish pay, and 5,000
others. Volunteers were also generously represented.

Ali Pasha (Ali Paþa), supported by the buccaneers Chulouk Bey of Alexandria and
Uluj Ali (Uluch Ali) was at the head of approximately 220-230 galleys, 50-60
galliots, and some smaller vessels belonging to the Ottomans and their vassals.
The Turks enjoyed skilled and experienced crews, but were somewhat deficient in
soldiers, having only 25,000 soldiers, including 2,500 Janissaries.

This deficiency in soldiers, especially of Jannissary quality, who were the only
warriors at that time the equal of the Spanish Infantry, cost the Ottomans
dearly. Some naval historians argue that this lack -- especially in that it led
to the capture and execution of Ali Pasha, with his head displayed prominently
during the battle -- was one of the decisive factors in the Ottoman defeat at
Lepanto. Other authorities consider that the significant differences between the
two sides amounted primarily to the larger, longer-ranged broadside cannon on
the Venetian galleases, the thick armour of the Spanish infantry, and the large
numbers of Muslim archers. Certainly the few galleases had an influence out of
proportion to their numbers, and several prominent Christians were lost to
arrows.

One of the better-known participants in the battle was Spanish author Miguel de
Cervantes, who was wounded in the battle and effectively lost the use of his
left hand. He was later taken hostage by the Turks and spent five years in
captivity as a prisoner of war. This episode of his life is believed to be
referenced in his masterpiece, Don Quixote (First Part, Chapters XXXIX-XLI).

Deployment

The Christian fleet formed up in 4 divisions in a North-South line. At the
northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly
Venetian; led by Agustino Barbarigo, with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in
support. The Centre Division consisted of 62 galleys under Don Juan himself in
his Real, along with Sebastian Veniero and Marcantonio Colonna. The Right
Division to the south, consisted of another 53 galleys under the Genoese
Giovanni Andrea Doria. Two galleasses, which had side-mounted cannon, were
positioned in front of each main division, for the purpose, according to
Cervantes (who served on one of these galleasses, the Marquesa, during the
battle), of preventing the Turks from sneaking in small boats and sapping,
sabotaging or boarding the Habsburg vessels. A further Reserve Division was
stationed behind (that is, to the west of) the main fleet, to lend support
wherever it might be needed. This reserve division consisted of 38 galleys - 30
behind the Centre Division commanded by Alvaro de Bazán, and 4 behind each wing.
A scouting group was formed, from 2 Right and 6 Reserve galleys. As the
Christian fleet was slowly turning around Point Scropha, Doria's Right Division
at the off-shore side, was delayed at the start of the battle, and the Right's
galleasses did not get into position.

The Turkish fleet consisted of 54 galleys and 2 galliots in its Right, or
northern division, under Chulouk Bey; 61 galleys and 32 galliots in the Centre
under Ali Pasha in the Sultana, and about 63 galleys and 30 galliots in the
South off-shore; under Uluj Ali. A small reserve existed of 8 galleys, 22
galliots and 64 fustas, behind the Centre body. Ali Pasha is supposed to have
told his Christian galley-slaves: "If I win the battle, I promise you your
liberty. If the day is yours', then God has given it to you."

The battle

The Left and Centre galleasses had been towed half a mile ahead of the Christian
line, and were able to sink 2 Turkish galleys, and damage some more, before the
Turkish fleet left them behind. Their attacks also disrupted the Ottoman
formations. As the battle started, Doria found that Uluj Ali's galleys extended
further to the south than his own, and so headed south to avoid being
out-flanked. This meant he was even later coming into action. He ended up being
outmanœuvered by Ali, who turned back and attacked the southern end of the
Centre Division, taking advantage of the big gap that Doria had left.

In the north, Chulouk Bey had managed to get between the shore and the Christian
North Division, with six galleys in an outflanking move, and initially the
Christian fleet suffered. Barbarigo was killed by an arrow, but the Venetians,
turning to face the threat, held their line. The return of a galleass saved the
Christian North Division. The Christian Centre also held the line with the help
of the Reserve, after taking a great deal of damage, and caused great damage to
the Muslim Centre. In the south, off-shore side, Doria was engaged in a melee
with Uluj Ali's ships, taking the worse part. Meanwhile Uluj Ali himself
commanded 16 galleys in a fast attack on the Christian Centre, taking 6 galleys
- amongst them the Maltese Capitana, killing everyone on board, including its
commander, Giustiniani, Prior of the Order of St. John, felled by five arrows.
The arrival of Alvaro de Bazán with the reserve was able to turn the battle,
both in the Centre and in Doria's South Wing. Uluj Ali was forced to flee with
16 galleys and 24 galliots, abandoning all but one of his captures. During the
course of the battle, the Ottoman Commander's ship was boarded and the Spanish
tercios from 3 galleys and the Turkish janissaries from 7 galleys fought on the
deck of the Sultana. Twice the Spanish were repelled with great loss, but at the
third attempt, with reinforcements from Alvaro de Bazán's galley, they
prevailed. Müezzenzade Ali Pasha was killed and beheaded, against the wishes of
Don Juan. However, when his head was displayed on a pike from the Spanish
flagship, it contributed greatly to the destruction of Turkish morale. The
battle concluded around 4 pm.

The Turkish fleet suffered the loss of about 180 galleys and 60 galliots.
However, only 117 galleys and 13 galliots were in good enough condition for the
Christians to keep. On the Christian side 15 galleys were destroyed and 30
damaged so seriously that they had to be scuttled. One Venetian galley was the
only one kept by the Turks. All others were abandoned by them and recaptured.

The Holy League had suffered around 9,000 casualties but freed twice as many
Christian prisoners. Turkish casualties were around 30,000. The Holy League
credited the victory to the Virgin Mary, whose intercession with God they had
implored for victory through the use of the Rosary. Pius V instituted a new
Catholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commemorate the battle, which is
now celebrated by the Catholic Church as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary.
[1]

This page gives extensive details of tactics and galley designs used during this
battle.

Aftermath

The engagement was a crushing defeat for the Ottomans, who lost all but about 50
of their ships. It was one of the most decisive naval defeats in the
Mediterranean between the Battle of Actium (31 BC) and the Battle of the Nile
(1798). Despite the massive Turkish defeat, European disunity prevented the
allied forces from pressing their victory or achieving supremacy over the
Ottomans at sea at this time.

The Ottoman Empire immediately began a massive effort to rebuild its navy, and
within 6 months was able to reassert Ottoman naval supremacy in the eastern
Mediterranean. But because of the rapid rebuilding, many of the ships were made
from unseaworthy materials and manned by inexperienced sailors. This was to have
more important consequences in the long term than their sheer numbers.

The defeat at Lepanto did not prevent the Ottomans' from capturing the forts
around Tunis. Ultimately, however, the Ottomans lost their control of the
Mediterranean and its tributary seas, especially in its western part. The Battle
of Lepanto, following their earlier failure at the Great Siege of Malta in 1565,
restricted Ottoman ambitions in the Mediterranean, just as the Battles of Diu
(1509 and 1538) had limited their ambitions in the Indian Ocean. The Siege of
Vienna (1529), the Battle of Molodi (1572), and the Battle of Vienna (1683),
ended their deep advances into Europe. Nevertheless these defeats also
demonstrate the persistent strength and resourcefulness of the Ottomans in this
period, often coming after many Ottoman victories. Many lesser naval clashes
would occur long after 1571.

Lepanto was the last major battle under oars. It broke the threat of Muslim
dominance at sea. The Battle of Navarino (1827), the last major battle under
sail, provided merely an embarrassing coda to any pretensions of thalassocracy.

Depictions in art

The immense import of Lepanto has led it to inspire many artists in various
fields.

There are many pictorial representations of the battle, including two in the
Doge's Palace in Venice: by Paolo Veronese (above) in the Sala del Collegio and
by Andrea Vicentino on the walls of the Sala dello Scrutinio, which replaced
Tintoretto's Victory of Lepanto, destroyed by fire in 1577. Titian's Allegory of
the Battle of Lepanto, using the battle as a backgound, hangs in the Prado in
Madrid. The picture at the top of this article is the work of an unknown artist.

The American abstract painter Cy Twombly refers with 12 big pictures ('Lepanto',
2001) to the battle, one of his main works.

The English author G. K. Chesterton wrote a poem Lepanto, published in 1915
alluding to this battle.

Playwright Howard Barker refers to the Battle of Lepanto in his play Scenes from
an Execution, which premiered in 1986. In it, a fictional Venetian painter named
Galactia, a character who bears much in common with the artist Artemisia
Gentileschi, has been commissioned by the doge to paint a commemorative
depiction of the battle. Her refusal to make the scene one which will inspire
patriotism and pride in the Venetian people leads to conflict with state
officials.